Research

For this study we will use a mixed methods design, whereby all three work packages will require a specific approach. Overall, our strategy will be to capitalise on the complementarity of a variety of research methods in order to understand the socio-politico-ecological problems under study in a holistic way. Field research will be extremely important in the research. At the same time, the specific empirical data we will gather in the selected sites, will allow us to draw some generalizable conclusions. The case of the Copperbelt region is a typical case of population boom resulting from a rush for mineral resources. In many areas in DRC and other African countries, urbanisation follows the exploitation of mineral resources - either in the wake of an industrial company moving in, or an artisanal miners’ ‘rush’.  With limited financial and organisation capacities, the infrastructures needed for water treatment and distribution mostly fail to meet the speed at which the demand for clean water grows, resulting in an insufficient, unsafe and unfair access to water. Thus, the conclusions of the present study will be relevant for similar (African) contexts.

Ethical considerations: We will adhere to the basic ethical principles of ‘do no harm’ and ‘protect the autonomy, wellbeing and dignity of our participants’. To this end, we will carefully manage the data collection process, ask informed consent from all the participants in the research, and maintain confidentiality of the data. We will seek ethical advice from the Ethical Commissions in Social Science and Humanities and the Ethical Commission in Science and Technology.

Feasibility: The collaboration with local institutes such as CEGEMI and Université de Lubumbashi, as well as our previous research in the region, will facilitate our access to the selected sites. 

WP1

1.1. Water resources in the area

Determine the distribution of surface water, river basins, lakes, etc., notably in big cities (such as Lubumbashi); further determine the source of the different waters (wells, springs, etc.) and treatment and distribution systems (pipes, trucks and others). This will be achieved by using geographic information system (GIS) tools to map the resources vis-à-vis the distribution of the population and mineral resources under exploitation. It will also be validated by on-field observations in order to accurately understand : who has access to water, what volume, what quality, what type of well (on board or not on board), from where? The use of past maps (1980-2020) associated with a survey with key stakeholders will allow understanding the evolution of populations, water resources and water treatment as well as distribution facilities over the past decades, allowing us to discern certain trends that are likely to continue in the future. Additional models will be used to predict how climate change, seasonality and changes in resource uses are likely to affect the amount of freshwater available and the needed investment for its treatment and distribution based on the diversity of its state in the area.

1.2. Potential effects of local geology

The local geology and location of orebodies is reasonably well-known, even though some chemical aspects of the orebodies need to be further investigated, as for instance the abundance of manganese in the ore, and as a result, in aquifers and river water. The effects on the environment and health of this neurotoxic metal which is intimately associated with cobalt (Decrée et al., 2015) have been understudied. Another element which has been under-evaluated is the role of “technosol” (soil layer characterised by modern technology pollution) in water pollution, notably in large cities. This will be done by sampling in the cities, at depths of 10, 15, 30 or 100cm. The sampling will analyse the composition of this soil in elements that are commonly found in batteries, cans of cleaning products, aerosols, etc. Different models will be tested on how these elements can evolve with population growth and mining activities, as well as models assessing the dynamics of transfer and contamination of these elements into (deep) water bodies. Similarly to technosols, large mine tailings deposits will be analysed. A typical example, now located within Lubumbashi, is the “Terril de Lubumbashi”, a >6 million m³ deposit of mine tailings originating from different mines in the province (Etoile, Ruashi, Kipushi, Kolwezi) with >12.5% of copper + cobalt + lead + zinc (Cailteux, 2021, pers. comm.) waste containing levels of copper and cobalt and many other elements that may be toxic if they reach water bodies. GIS tools will be used for mapping the ‘technosols’ and other types of waste’s geographical distribution in relation to that of the water resources.

The Geodynamics and Mineral Resources (GMR) Unit in the RMCA will sample, analyse and map all types of solid sediments in this study, from efflorescence to soil and ore samples. Chemical analyses for major, trace elements and rare-earth elements (REE) will be interpreted and compared with data obtained from water samples (see section 2.1). The behaviour of specific elements, such as cobalt, manganese, lead, cadmium and uranium – all of which have suspected effects on public health – will be investigated. Together with water analyses, these data will provide the ‘missing link’ between the ore, seen from the geological viewpoint, and the human body which has abnormal contents of these pollutant metals, obviously associated with mining activities, in the Katanga province (Banza et al., 2009; 2018).

WP2

2.1. Level of organic and inorganic pollution

After the key water bodies have been identified in 1.1. and the risks analysed in 1.2., samples of water, sediment, macroinvertebrate and fish will be taken in these (surface and underground) water bodies. Water sampling will start with an on field physico-chemical assessment (temperature, pH, oxygen levels, conductivity and turbidity), then will follow a trimestral sampling in all selected streams, lakes and wells. Sediment sampling will be conducted in rivers exposed to both mining and urban pollution (with a non-polluted river for comparison). A sediment grabber will be used to keep the sediment in the same state as at the bottom of the stream; the samples will be stored in oxygen-free falcon tubes, to protect them from oxygenation during their transportation to the lab. Suspended sediments in both surface and underground waters will be analysed as well, as they may represent an important path for the transfer of pollutant metals from the geological substrate or soil into the water. Macroinvertebrate, aquatic vegetation and fish sampled in polluted and non-polluted streams and lakes. And on field dissection of fish will be conducted in a safe environment to extract fish muscle, gills and liver for contamination analysis. The impact of pollution on fish biodiversity will be based on the fish identification during the sampling by analysing which species are found in polluted rivers and lakes compared to the ones that are not, and how this distribution may be related to the level of contamination. Stable isotope analysis will be conducted to understand the local food web and determine if there is a trophic transmission of these inorganic and/or organic pollutants, and if there is a potential for biomagnification and greater risk for consumers of certain fish species. Samples’ metal content will be analysed by an high resolution inductively plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) while their PFAS and other POPS content will be analysed by an ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS) at the University of Antwerp’s Ecosphere’s lab. An emphasis will be put to the mixture of organic and inorganic pollutants in terms of their bioavailability and risks for ecosystems and humans.

2.2. Effects on human health

Human blood, urine, hair and nails will be collected in areas where there are high levels of consumption of water and fish that are potentially polluted. As in 2.1, these samples’ metal content will be analysed by an high resolution inductively plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) while their PFAS and other POPS content will also be analysed by an ultra-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS) at the University of Antwerp’s Ecosphere’s lab. Alongside the biological sampling, a survey will be conducted with the people who volunteer their samples. This survey will focus on three factors: (1) the type of exposure to pollutants these people have (at home, at work, diet, water consumed, etc.), (2) the symptoms they have been experiencing in the last year and which might relate to metal or organic pollutants contamination; and (3) their knowledge (or lack thereof) of the risk of contamination as well as their strategies to protect themselves or advocate for cleaner water. These results will be compared to previous studies on mining-derived metal contamination of humans in Katanga (Bamba and Benjamin, 2022; Ngoy, 2019; Squadrone et al., 2016; Atibu et al., 2016; Atibu et al., 2013; Banza et al., 2009) and complement them in terms of PFAS and other POPS deriving from urban life and the interaction between organic and inorganic pollutants.

WP3

3.1. Governance of water access

To understand what mechanisms and power relations grant or block access to water we will conduct in-depth interviews with key persons in the communities. We will use purposive sampling so as to identify those persons who can give us critical insights in the actors and power relations. These persons may include water company workers, neighbourhood chiefs, local government actors, OCC staff, environmental NGOs, local associations, health workers, etc. The interviews will be audio-recorded if consent has been given, and fully transcribed. The data will then be analysed using NVivo software for qualitative data analysis.

3.2. Groups who have less access or are more affected

To understand who has access to (clean) water and who has not, we will conduct focus group discussions with community members. We will identify different relevant sub-groups (for instance female mine workers, male mine workers, small traders, restaurant owners, domestic workers) and purposively sample focus group participants within these groups. Questions will be asked about access to water, exclusion and distribution. During these focus group discussions, participatory mapping exercises will allow us to identify water bodies as well as all socio-economic and spatial dynamics surrounding these. All data will be transcribed (after consent) and analysed using NVivo software for qualitative data analysis.

3.3. Policies and interventions

After having done a preliminary analysis of all data collected in the three work packages, validation workshops will be conducted with different stakeholders. They will be invited to comment on the preliminary results. This will be facilitated by using participatory methods. Collectively, we will then move towards proposing policies and interventions that are more equitable, inclusive and locally adapted.